Hackley Stadium Celebrating Century as Monument to Community Dedication, Football Glory

By Ron Pesch
MHSAA historian

September 4, 2026

Mounted on the brick wall of Hackley Stadium, facing Sanford Street in Muskegon, is a bronze plaque. In raised type, it details a successful “GoFundMe” effort – 1920s style.

The approach was a bit different then, but the fundraising efforts were successful and created an iconic landmark that still stands – now ready to celebrate its 100th year.

Seated, rectangularly, in the middle of a residential neighborhood, directly behind the high school, the site itself has served as home to Muskegon High School’s football team for 120 years. The sport dates to 1895 at MHS.

The wooded lot was gifted in 1902 by Muskegon’s greatest benefactor – lumber baron Charles H. Hackley – to the Board of Education. Hackley desired the space to be developed into an athletic field and playground for use by the school and area youth.

The proposed stadium plan from 1906 shows the football field, baseball diamond, track and tennis courts among other proposed features to the new athletic field.Quickly dubbed Hackley Field, it took four years before administration cleared trees from the lot. Initial plans for the parcel, laid out by a former coach and director of athletics, envisioned a site that would accommodate multiple sports, including a gridiron at the center of the property, surrounded by a track, with tennis courts placed at the site’s four corners.

Bob Zuppke – hired in August 1906 as the school’s newest coach and director – learned that the school board was ready to act on the design. He immediately spotted the planned layout showed a football field of just 50 yards. Recognizing the site could accommodate a full-sized gridiron, his redesign reduced the number of tennis courts to three and pushed them to one end of the site. He expanded the gridiron to regulation size and surrounded it with a 1/5-mile cinder track. His plan included space for a baseball diamond within the gridiron. An extensive wooden grandstand along the northeast side of the site would stretch the length of the football field to handle growing crowds at sporting events.

Zuppke’s modifications were promptly accepted, and Hackley Field was ready in mid-May 1907 for an initial track meet with Muskegon’s biggest rival, Grand Rapids Central. That fall, Muskegon played seven consecutive football home games at the new location. Recognizing the financial value of the annual clash with Central, that contest was moved to the last game of the year and staged on Thanksgiving Day. Crowds soared in size.

Dropping just a single game each season during his four years in town, Zuppke built Muskegon into a football powerhouse before moving on to even greater gridiron success over three years at Oak Park High School in Illinois. In 1913, he was named head football coach at the University of Illinois, earning national titles in 1914, 1919, 1923 – with a team that featured three-time All-American Harold ‘Red’ Grange – and 1927. Zuppke retired following the 1941 season. During his 35-year prep and college career, he introduced numerous innovations that remain hallmarks of the game today.

Muskegon takes on Grand Rapids Central in 1922.

Plans for a Cement Stadium

From a comfortable chair, stationed in his room at a retirement home in Kalamazoo, 85-year-old C. Leo Redmond, former coach at Muskegon, recalled the story behind the construction of Muskegon High School’s historic Hackley Stadium. The concrete structure, built in 1927, replaced greatly expanded wooden stands (tennis courts were never added) originally placed on the site by Zuppke’s design.

Born in 1900 in Kalamazoo, Redmond arrived at MHS in 1925. A recent graduate of Western State Normal School – today’s Western Michigan University – he wasn’t Muskegon’s first choice to replace his predecessor, the highly-successful J. Francis Jacks.

A 1912 graduate of Muskegon, Jacks had turned the team’s football games into a huge draw between 1920 and 1924. During the span, his teams earned three mythical state titles over five years and produced an array of talented athletes, including University of Michigan great Bennie Oosterbaan.

But in the spring of 1925, Jacks passed away unexpectedly. Gus Cohrs, another Muskegon alum, was experiencing success in basketball and football at Grand Haven High School. He’d accepted the Muskegon job to succeed Jacks, but an outcry by Grand Haven fans and an immediate pay raise kept him from moving.

Fortunately for all, Redmond’s teams went 7-1-2 in 1925, then repeated as Michigan’s mythical champion in 1926. Immediately after the completion of that season, however, the school faced its next challenge.

“We walked out to the bleachers at the football field and Joe Bicknell (the Hackley Manual Training School director and facility manager for athletics) pulled out his pocketknife,” said Redmond. “He then pushed the blade completely into one of the wooden beams supporting the bleachers and said, ‘They will fall down if they have to support another season.’ So, we started a fund drive for Hackley Field’s reconstruction by selling stadium bonds.”

Muskegon contacted The Osborn Engineering Company of Cleveland, Ohio, to discuss the task. Peter P. Evans, vice president of the firm, visited Muskegon to inspect possible sites. “Mr. Evans’ company planned and built Navin Field, Detroit, the Polo Grounds, New York, and is now building the new stadium for the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor,” noted the Muskegon Chronicle.

Visiting in December, Evans advised “it would be best if it could replace the present seating arrangements at Hackley Field,” noting “it would not be architecturally objectionable to anyone in the neighborhood nor spoil the landscape effects of the campus.”

Building a stadium made with cement had been pondered by Bicknell and administration as early as 1913, but cost – then estimated at $25,000 – was viewed as insurmountable.

Osborn Engineering works on the renovated stadium during the summer of 1927.It took until April 1927 for final approval of a plan, and Osborn Engineering was authorized to prepare specifications. Time was of the essence, as the existing bleachers were now condemned and needed to be removed and replaced by fall.

The design would include “two team rooms” and restrooms under the stands, with the project financed by sale of bonds. A total of 1,500 were issued, priced at $50, earning 4 percent interest. The structure would feature seating for 6,000, with a block of 1,100 seats located between the 35-yard lines reserved for bondholders. The $75,000 campaign launched the first week of May.

The district tapped into a young sales force to help execute the plan – the student body. The classes of '27, '28, '29 and '30 – over 2,000 strong – were asked to distribute pamphlets and sell bonds to the public.

Years later, Gont Miller remembered walking home with Bub Meier – both would serve as future captains of Big Reds football teams.

"Principal John Craig talked to us Thursday night after practice,” recalled Miller. “He said, 'We're going to ask you to get out and sell some bonds.'

The pair talked about their frustration at being assigned the unwanted task.

“Together, we decided we weren't going to do it. After I got home, I told my mother about the bonds.”

She reframed it for her son, highlighting the community that surrounded them.

"Boy, that will be easy,” she said. “After dinner, go on over and see Mr. Runzel across the street, and the Nelsons on the side of us. I'm sure they will be interested.

"Well, I guess she got me inspired. I went over and saw Mr. Runzel, and he bought four. And Lester Nelson bought three, and Otto Meeske bought six. Mr. Runzel said, 'Go down and see my son,' and I did, and he bought two. People really supported Big Red football. We sold all the bonds, and they built the stadium. It was quite an experience for a kid."

Construction contracts were awarded by June 1, and actual work on the site started on Wednesday, June 15. According to the files of Osborn Engineering, the concrete and brick structure itself was completed over just 24 days – July 20 to August 12. Final plumbing and electrical preparations were completed in time for the first game against Muskegon Heights on Saturday, September 17.

Dedication and the Birth of a Rivalry

"Impressive and colorful flag-raising ceremonies marked the dedication of the new stands," wrote Jimmy Henderson in the Muskegon Chronicle. "A massed assemblage of over 2,000 students who paraded on the field following the Heights and Muskegon high school bands, and close to 3,000 spectators in the stands stood at attention while the massed bands under the leadership of Ronald Hinchman played the national anthem, as the new flag was slowly raised to its position over the stadium."

The Big Reds posted a crushing 89-0 victory over the Heights and their new coach, Oscar E. "Okie" Johnson – a former teammate of Redmond’s at Western – in the season opener. It was the first of nine shutouts posted by Muskegon en route to a 10-0 campaign and another mythical state title. Outscoring opponents 445-6, the team remains among the greatest in school history.

The stands are filled for a game in 1942. Muskegon claimed a second-consecutive shutout over Johnson’s Tigers in 1928, this time 19-0, and finished the season with another state crown. In ’29, they again blanked the Tigers, but by just seven points. In 1930, Johnson’s squad tied Redmond’s Big Reds, 6-6, and established themselves as Muskegon’s chief rival. Come 1936, the game was moved to the season finale, replacing the matchup with Grand Rapids Central. Lights were added to Hackley in 1940, with most games shifted to Friday nights. Annual classic battles between the Big Reds and Tigers were all played at Hackley (until 1948) and still staged on Saturday afternoons (until 1953) to accommodate the massive crowds.

The 1945 season-ending contest between the schools – both undefeated – was a battle for the state title. A record crowd of 13,500 packed every square inch of the grounds. Heights opened a 7-0 lead early, but Muskegon responded with a touchdown midway through the second quarter. A missed extra point pinned the score at 7-6. It remained stuck there until an intense goal-line stand late in the fourth quarter would determine the game’s outcome. The Big Reds had advanced the ball to the Tigers’ 1 on second down. A charge at the center of the line on third down was stopped.

“The ball, three inches from the goal line when play started, still was an inch from the line when it was set down,” wrote Henderson, still covering the rivalry. “When (the defense) stopped the forward motion of (Muskegon’s quarterback), the air went dark with the applause of the Heights fans, and the groans of Muskegon’s.” The win capped the first of three consecutive state crowns won by the Tigers, and the loss was the first in 16 starts for the Big Reds, the defending state champion.

In 1946, Muskegon installed its first electronic scoreboard, retiring the one manually operated by the Boy Scouts. Redmond retired as coach following the season with a 156-29-13 record and seven state titles over 22 seasons. (His victory total remained tops in school history until recently surpassed by current head coach Shane Fairfield.) Most fittingly, the remarkable gridiron rivalry between coaches Redmond and Johnson ended dead even at 9-9-2.

Reduced revenue during the depression years forced default on bond payments. After a restructuring of obligations, a final payout distributed in 1950 to bondholders meant the stadium was now out of debt. That fall, $8,000 in repairs and waterproofing helped stabilize a structure starting to show wear and tear.

Coach Harry Potter – another Western teammate of Redmond’s, and his longtime assistant – took the reins in 1947 and guided the 1951 Big Reds to another gridiron state championship. That team featured future NFL quarterback Earl Morrall.

Over the years, Hackley Stadium has served the community with World War II events to sell war bonds, practice drill formations, events to honor local industries’ wartime outputs, and VFW Memorial Day gatherings. There have been countless halftime shows, marching band competitions, high school assemblies, and commencement exercises. It has hosted opera, concert performances, and music reviews. In 1951, evangelist Rev. Billy Graham and his music director Cliff Barrows visited. In 1957, a massive Water Follies show with a dive tank, stage, and swim tank – spanning 150 feet – filled Hackley Stadium, raising money for the local ‘Police and Fireman Benevolent Association’.

More than 10,000 fans packed the stands in the fall of 1971 to watch another pair of unbeatens as the Big Reds topped Traverse City on their way to another state championship. Members of the Lake Michigan Athletic Conference, the Trojans became firmly established as new primary rivals on Muskegon’s annual slate.

This display includes a photo of the 1928 state championship team and brochure for stadium bonds.After four uncharacteristic down years on the gridiron during the early 1980s, huge crowds returned to pack Hackley’s stands beginning in 1985, especially during Muskegon’s march to MHSAA playoff titles in 1986 and 1989.

Continued maintenance over the years ensured the stadium’s survival. In 1996, extensive renovations and rejuvenation of the concrete stadium ensured the safekeeping of the ‘Home of the Big Reds’. Concession stands were moved from beneath the seating to structures at the north and south ends of the stadium. Modern requirements meant removal of the track that once surrounded Hackley to expand the concourse that leads to seating. But proximity and sight lines to the playing surface – always a feature of Hackley for fans – were not sacrificed.

The Tunnel

Terry Foster, writing for the Detroit News, visited the stadium as part of his “Terry’s Tour” in 2006. Kicking off a series of articles where he visited high school football games across the state, Foster’s opening paragraphs focused on another unique feature of the stadium.

Postgame, the Big Red Band ends home game festivities by marching – shoulder-to-shoulder, students aligned three-or-four-or-five across, with instruments swinging up-and-down and side-to-side, beneath the stands.

“Fans lined both sides of the cramped corridor as the band paraded through the narrow human tunnel …

“‘Ok. You got to hang tight against the wall,’ Muskegon head coach Tony Annese told Foster. … You will get hit if you are not careful.’ … Like Annese, they wanted to feel the booming drums vibrate off the concrete walls as the band marched underneath the stadium. …

“The march that eventually took the musicians (down Sanford Street) to their music room has been going on for decades. So has winning football.”

A new video scoreboard was installed in 2015. Field turf replaced Hackley Field’s natural grass in 2020. Also added was a brick fence similar in placement to one that surrounded the site back in 1914 and was removed in phases between 1927 and 1946.

Muskegon continues to lead the state in all-time football victories, earning additional MHSAA titles in 2004, 2006, 2008, 2017 and 2023. Many feel that rich tradition, combined with the classic backdrop of Hackley Stadium packed with alumni and passionate football fans, has played a huge role in those wins.

For the Big Reds, Hackley has always been more than brick, concrete, and rebar.

PHOTOS (Top) Muskegon takes on Grandville in 2015 at Hackley Stadium in what would end as the program’s 800th victory. (2) The proposed stadium plan from 1906 shows the football field, baseball diamond, track and tennis courts among other proposed features to the new athletic field. (3) Muskegon takes on Grand Rapids Central in 1922. (4) Osborn Engineering works on the renovated stadium during the summer of 1927. (5) The stands are filled for a game in 1942. (6) This display includes a photo of the 1928 state championship team and brochure for stadium bonds. (Top photo by Tim Reilly. Other photos collected by Ron Pesch.)

1st & Goal: Week 6 in Review

October 6, 2020

By Geoff Kimmerly
Second Half editor

There’s no pretending this football season hasn’t been a little different, for obvious reasons.

But every week seems to reintroduce something familiar – and looking at the statewide scoreboard after Week 6, it was the “first time since the last time” list.

If that’s a theme, Jonesville, Ann Arbor Huron, Centreville and Brimley are among the stars with accomplishments this week they hadn’t enjoyed in a while. Details are below as we take a glance again at the scores that jumped off the page most from the weekend’s action.

Bay & Thumb

HEADLINER Grand Blanc 34, Lapeer 16 The Bobcats (2-1) had lost both regular-season and playoff games to Lapeer the last two seasons, last year by 34 and 28 points, respectively. But they handed the Lightning (2-1) only its second defeat during the regular season over the last three seasons. Click below for more from WJRT.

Watch list North Branch 27, Croswell-Lexington 20 The Broncos (3-0) handed the Pioneers (2-1) their first loss, a week after avenging last year’s loss to Almont. Up next is Richmond, the only other team that defeated North Branch during the 2019 regular season.

Remember this one Hemlock 48, Midland Bullock Creek 32 The Huskies (3-0) still see Millington, and Millington still faces Bullock Creek (1-2), and it’s likely some combination of those results determines the Tri-Valley Conference West I champion.

More shoutouts Sanford Meridian 28, Harrison 8 The Mustangs (3-0) kept themselves in the hunt for the Jack Pine Conference championship, with Meridian, Harrison (2-1) and Beaverton all trailing league leader Clare by a win. Goodrich 42, Lake Fenton 27 The Martians (2-1) did the same in the Flint Metro League Stars, holding on just a game back of league leader Ortonville Brandon after delivering Lake Fenton (2-1) its first defeat.

Greater Detroit

HEADLINER Clarkston 24, West Bloomfield 21 (OT) The Wolves showed they’re absolutely back after coming all the way back from a 21-7 deficit to edge the rival Lakers (2-1) in overtime. Clarkston (3-0) sits alone atop the Oakland Activities Association Red standings with as many wins as it earned all of last season. Click for more from the Oakland Press and see highlights below from State Champs Sports Network.

Watch list Canton 21, Brighton 20 Canton is off to its first 3-0 start since 2015 and leads the Kensington Lakes Activities Association West after edging the reigning Division 1 runner-up Bulldogs (1-2).

Remember this one Clinton Township Chippewa Valley 42, Sterling Heights Stevenson 27 In the loaded six-team Macomb Area Conference Red, reigning champion Chippewa Valley (2-1) stopped previously-surging Stevenson (2-1) to create a four-way tie atop the standings.

More shoutouts Detroit Catholic Central 14, Warren De La Salle Collegiate 10 The Shamrocks (3-0) clinched a share of the Detroit Catholic League Central title, avenging last season’s 14-3 loss to the Pilots (1-2). Auburn Hills Oakland Christian 21, Whitmore Lake 7 The Lancers (3-0) sit atop the Michigan Independent Athletic Conference after finishing second to Whitmore Lake (1-2) a year ago.

Mid-Michigan

HEADLINER Portland 21, Lansing Catholic 7 The Raiders (2-1) saw an overall six-game winning streak against Lansing Catholic end in last season’s District Final as the Cougars went on to win Division 5. But Portland ran its regular-season winning streak against Lansing Catholic (2-1) to six in a matchup that put the Raiders in solid position to win the Capital Area Activities Conference White title. Click for more from the Lansing State Journal and see highlights below from WLNS.

Watch list New Lothrop 44, Montrose 15 The Hornets (3-0) appear the team to beat again in the Mid-Michigan Activities Conference after improving on last year’s win over reigning league runner-up Montrose (2-1) – although Durand also is unbeaten and will have a say.

Remember this one Fowlerville 17, Holt 14 Morgyn Muck’s 44-yard last-minute go-ahead field goals surely won’t be forgotten soon by the Gladiators (2-1).

More shoutouts East Lansing 17, Lansing Waverly 0 The Trojans have produced outstanding receivers before him, but Andrel Anthony Jr. is resetting all the school’s receiving records, including for career yardage in this win. Lake Odessa Lakewood 43, Stockbridge 26 The Vikings (2-1) set themselves up to face Olivet this week with a share of the Greater Lansing Activities Conference title on the line.  

Northern Lower Peninsula

HEADLINER Kingsley 36, Traverse City St. Francis 23 The Stags (3-0) took a major step toward repeating as Northern Michigan Football Conference Legends champions, as St. Francis (1-2) annually finishes among the top two in the division. Owen Graves piled up 287 yards rushing and scored four times for Kingsley. Click for more from the Traverse City Record-Eagle.

Watch list Manistee 42, Harbor Springs 20 Manistee (3-0) tuned up well for this week’s Lakes 8 Athletic Conference decider against Muskegon Catholic Central, handing Harbor Springs (2-1) its first defeat.

Remember this one Traverse City Central 41, Cadillac 17 The first-place Trojans (3-0) now own wins over the two teams tied for second in the Big North Conference, Cadillac (2-1) and Traverse City West.

More shoutouts Evart 29, Houghton Lake 22 The Wildcats (1-2) celebrated their first win, knocking Houghton Lake (2-1) out of a tie for first in the Highland Conference. East Jordan 30, St. Ignace 6 The Red Devils (2-1) had lost all four previous meetings to the Saints since they joined the NMFC Legacy together. 

Southeast & Border 

HEADLINER Jonesville 44, Reading 18 There are plenty of impressive numbers coming off the weekend’s most surprising score. Jonesville (2-1) hadn’t beaten Reading since 2014, having lost the last two meetings with the Rangers by a combined 112-0. Reading (2-1) hadn’t lost a Big 8 Conference game since 2016, and only one other regular-season game over the last three seasons. This sets Jonesville up to compete with Week 9 opponent Homer for this year’s league title – although Reading faces Homer first in Week 8. Click for more from the Hillsdale Daily News.

Watch list Blissfield 28, Clinton 14 The Royals (3-0) are alone atop the Lenawee County Athletic Association with wins over two of three second-place teams and the third, Brooklyn Columbia Central, not on the shortened schedule.    

Remember this one Ann Arbor Huron 18, Ann Arbor Pioneer 8 The Hurons (1-1) broke an 18-game losing streak to rival Pioneer (0-2) that went back to 2002.

More shoutouts Sand Creek 50, Ottawa Lake Whiteford 14 The Aggies’ first win over Whiteford since 2011 kept Sand Creek (3-0) tied for first in the Tri-County Conference. Chelsea 42, Schoolcraft 21 Scheduled after two other cancelations, this last-minute matchup pitted teams both often among the highly-ranked in their divisions.

Southwest Corridor

HEADLINER Centreville 36, Cassopolis 7 The Bulldogs (3-0) not only scored their first points on Cassopolis since 2015, they defeated the Rangers (2-1) for the first time in 10 recent meetings. Cassopolis also hadn’t lost a league game since 2017. Centreville will play co-leader Mendon this week for a share of the Southwest 10 Conference championship. Click for more from JoeInsider.com.

Watch list Buchanan 31, Berrien Springs 15 The Bucks (3-0) have equaled last year’s win total and with another victory will guarantee their best finish since 2016. Buchanan had lost the last three Berrien Springs matchups by a combined 127-0.

Remember this one Constantine 55, Watervliet 6 The Falcons (2-1) locked up a Watervliet offense that had scored a combined 107 points in two wins to start the fall.

More shoutouts Paw Paw 49, Sturgis 0 The Trojans (2-1) have put themselves back in the football conversation in the Wolverine Conference, but Paw Paw (3-0) made sure the title talk still centers on itself and Week 9 opponent Edwardsburg. Kalamazoo United 44, Parchment 6 The Titans (3-0) remain in position to challenge for a third-straight Southwestern Athletic Conference Lakeshore title.

Upper Peninsula

HEADLINER Gladstone 28, Sault Ste. Marie 26 The has been a whirlwind start for Gladstone, which didn’t play in the opening “Week 4” and then defeated Negaunee by two Week 5 on just a few days of prep. And now, this past weekend, the Braves (2-0) edged a Sault Ste. Marie team (2-1) that appeared to be the U.P.’s best after its first two victories. Click for more from the Escanaba Daily Press.

Watch list Marquette 10, Kingsford 0 The Redmen (2-1) ran their winning streak over Kingsford (2-1) to three and sit in good position to win the Great Northern Conference, with Menominee – which Marquette beat by 23 in Week 4 – up next. 

Remember this one Negaunee 29, L’Anse 6 The Miners (2-1) bounced right back after a two-point loss to Gladstone two weeks ago.

More shoutouts Manistique 12, Bessemer 0 The Emeralds (1-2) picked up their first win of the season with their first defensive shutout since 2012. Bark River-Harris 43, Norway 12 The Broncos (1-2) also earned their first victory, putting up a big number after scoring a combined six points over the first two weeks.

West Michigan 

HEADLINER Grand Rapids Catholic Central 42, Cedar Springs 28 The rebuilt Ottawa-Kent Conference this fall placed GRCC – coming off five straight league titles, most recently in the Blue – in the Gold with two-time reigning White champion Cedar Springs (2-1). Undefeated Grand Rapids South Christian still must face both, but the league race appears down to those three and with the Cougars and Sailors tied for the lead. Click for more from the Grand Rapids Press.

Watch list Byron Center 35, Grand Rapids Forest Hills Central 14 The Bulldogs (3-0), along with Lowell, have emerged as the frontrunners in the O-K White, with Forest Hills Central (2-1) and East Grand Rapids one game behind.

Remember this one Grand Rapids Union 59, Wyoming 57 Union’s 45-game losing streak, going back to 2015, came to an end in a game with so many points scored it will be included in the MHSAA record book at the end of the season.

More shoutouts Zeeland West 34, Zeeland East 14 With a third-straight win over the Chix (2-1), the Dux (3-0) moved into first place in the O-K Green with Muskegon Mona Shores. Grandville 21, Hudsonville 17 The Bulldogs (3-0) share the lead in the O-K Red with Rockford after breaking a two-game losing streak against the Eagles (2-1).

8-Player

HEADLINER Gaylord St. Mary 54, Whittemore-Prescott 18 The Snowbirds (3-0) topped 50 points for the third time in three games, this time against a first-year 8-player program that had given up a combined 44 points over its first two weeks. St. Mary is averaging 55 points per game and certainly provided the Cardinals (2-1) their toughest 8-player challenge so far. Click for more from the Iosco County News-Herald.

Watch list Adrian Lenawee Christian 55, Climax-Scotts 8 Lenawee Christian continued its impressive start in 8-player, handing former 11-player foe Climax-Scotts (2-1) its first defeat of the fall and improving its scoring margin for the season to 141-14.

Remember this one New Buffalo 28, Wyoming Tri-unity Christian 26 The Bison (3-0) have gone from contributing players to Bridgman as part of a cooperative team in 2018 to winning one game in its first season of 8-player a year ago, to putting together one of the strongest starts of 2020.

More shoutouts Brimley 42, Engadine 30 The Bays (1-2) broke a 15-game losing streak against Engadine and after falling 66-8 in last year’s meeting. Cedarville 32, Rapid River 20 The Trojans (2-1) had lost their three most recent games with Rapid River (2-1) by eight or fewer points each time.

PHOTO: Negaunee's Lukas Nelson (25) finds a brief opening Friday before L'Anse closes it up. (Photo by Cara Kamps.)